Level Proficient Chinese · HSK 7–9
Classical Function Words II: 也, 矣, 乎, 焉, 哉, 之 and 以
Classical final particles carry tone the way 吗, 吧 and 啊 do today, and they live on in proverbs, quotations and chengyu. 之 and 以 are more active: they appear in modern formal prose every day, in meanings that go well beyond what you met at C1.
也, 矣, 乎, 焉 and 哉
也 (yě) at the end of a classical sentence marks a statement or judgement ('is'), not 'also'. 矣 (yǐ) marks a change or completion, like modern 了. 乎 (hū) marks a question or exclamation, like 吗 or 呢; it also survives in words like 几乎 and 似乎. 焉 (yān) means 'there, in it' or 'how'. 哉 (zāi) is an exclamation or a rhetorical question.
You don't use these in modern sentences, except jokingly. You do need to recognise them in quotations such as 学而时习之，不亦说乎 (说 here is read yuè, 'pleased').
| Particle | Modern equivalent | Set phrase |
|---|---|---|
| 也 | 是 / 的 (statement) | 非我所愿也 |
| 矣 | 了 | 悔之晚矣 (too late for regrets) |
| 乎 | 吗 / 呢 | 不亦乐乎 |
| 焉 | 在这里 / 怎么 | 心不在焉 (absent-minded) |
| 哉 | 啊 (exclamation) | 呜呼哀哉 |
他上课总是心不在焉。
Tā shàng kè zǒngshì xīnbúzàiyān.
He's always miles away in class.
现在才后悔，悔之晚矣。
Xiànzài cái hòuhuǐ, huǐ zhī wǎn yǐ.
Regretting it now is too late.
之 as a pronoun and in fixed phrases
Besides its C1 role as a written 的, 之 (zhī) can be an object pronoun meaning 'it, him, them': 取而代之 (take its place), 总而言之 (to sum it up), 久而久之 (over time), 置之不理 (ignore it). It also links a subject and verb into a noun phrase: 大道之行也 (when the Great Way prevails), where 之 turns 'the Great Way prevails' into 'the prevailing of the Great Way'.
他每天熬夜，久而久之身体就垮了。
Tā měi tiān áo yè, jiǔ'érjiǔzhī shēntǐ jiù kuǎ le.
He stayed up late every night, and over time his health broke down.
对于这些批评，他一概置之不理。
Duìyú zhèxiē pīpíng, tā yígài zhì zhī bù lǐ.
He ignored all of these criticisms.
以 in full
以 (yǐ) has four main written meanings. Means: 'with, by' (以实际行动支持, support with concrete action). Reason: 'because of' (以…而闻名, famous for). Standard: 'according to, by' (以…为准, take … as the standard). Purpose: 'in order to' (以满足需求, so as to meet demand).
It also forms many compounds: 以便, 以免, 以及, 以致, 可以, 所以, 以为.
杭州以西湖而闻名。
Hángzhōu yǐ Xīhú ér wénmíng.
Hangzhou is famous for the West Lake.
比赛时间以通知为准。
Bǐsài shíjiān yǐ tōngzhī wéi zhǔn.
For match times, the official notice is what counts.
我们将增加班次，以满足乘客的需求。
Wǒmen jiāng zēngjiā bāncì, yǐ mǎnzú chéngkè de xūqiú.
We will add more services to meet passenger demand.
Common mistakes
✗我吃饭矣。
✓我吃饭了。
Wǒ chī fàn le.
Classical particles belong in quotations and set phrases. In a modern sentence, 矣 sounds like a parody.
✗杭州闻名以西湖。
✓杭州以西湖闻名。
Hángzhōu yǐ Xīhú wénmíng.
以 + reason comes before the verb, not after it like English 'famous for': 以 A 闻名 or 以 A 而闻名.
✗总之而言
✓总而言之
zǒng ér yán zhī
The set phrase is 总而言之 (or the short form 总之). Fixed classical phrases can't be rearranged.
Questions learners ask
Why is 说 read yuè in 不亦说乎?
In Classical Chinese 说 was also used for 悦 (pleased). Quotations keep the old reading.
Should I use 也 at the end of sentences in an essay?
No. Modern essays quote classical lines but don't imitate their grammar.
Practice this in lessons
The Proficient Chinese lessons teach this step by step, with exercises and review built in.
Practice this in lessons →- Classical Final Particles: 也, 矣, 乎, 焉, 哉 · Proficient Chinese
- 之 Beyond 的: Pronoun and Fixed Phrases · Proficient Chinese
- 以 in Full: Means, Reason and Standard · Proficient Chinese
Related grammar guides
- Classical Function Words I: 者, 即, 乃 and 何 · Proficient Chinese
- Linking in Writing: 因…而, 而, 则, 且, 亦, 皆, 所 and 无非 · Proficient Chinese
- Reading 文言 and How 成语 Work · Proficient Chinese